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Studies have shown that the gut microbiota not only directly affects the production of glucocorticoids and immune mediators, such as tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-), interleukin-1 (IL-1), and IL-6, but also further stimulates HPA axis activity through these mediators (112)
Bailey Bryan, Updated 2/17/2026 Shelly House, FNP, is a Family Nurse Practitioner and Call-On-Docs trusted medical education voice
published 1981-1987 in middle-aged chronic insomniacs
doi: 10.1155/2019/9613090 192 NehlsJ.KoppensteinerH.Brack-WernerR.FlossT.SchindlerM
The pattern we see consistently: morning administration aligns with cortisol-driven lipolysis and produces stronger fat oxidation markers, while evening administration coincides with growth hormone pulses and supports recovery signaling